Scientific Name for Green Olives Scientific Name for Beef

Species of flowering plant in the family Oleaceae

Olive Temporal range: Late Pleistocene to contempo, 0.06–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O Due south D C P T J Grand Pg Northward ↓
Olea europaea
Conservation status
Data Deficient (IUCN 3.one)[one]
Scientific nomenclature
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Asterids
Order:	Lamiales
Family:	Oleaceae
Genus:	Olea
Species:	O. europaea
Binomial name
Olea europaea L.
Distribution map, with Olea europaea subsp. europaea shown in green

The olive, botanical proper noun Olea europaea , pregnant 'European olive', is a species of small tree or shrub in the family Oleaceae, found traditionally in the Mediterranean Basin. When in shrub form, it is known as Olea europaea 'Montra', dwarf olive, or picayune olive. The species is cultivated in all the countries of the Mediterranean, as well as in Commonwealth of australia, New Zealand, N and South America and S Africa.^{[2] [3]} Olea europaea is the type species for the genus Olea.

The olive's fruit, also chosen an "olive", is of major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region equally the source of olive oil; it is one of the core ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine. The tree and its fruit give their proper name to the establish family unit, which also includes species such as lilac, jasmine, forsythia, and the truthful ash tree.

Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known. Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to every bit "table olives".^[4] About 90% of all harvested olives are turned into oil, while about 10% are used as table olives.

Etymology [edit]

The give-and-take olive derives from Latin ŏlīva ("olive fruit", "olive tree"),^[5] possibly through Etruscan 𐌀𐌅𐌉𐌄𐌋𐌄 (eleiva) from the archaic Proto-Greek grade *ἐλαίϝα (*elaíwa) (Classic Greek ἐλαία elaía , "olive fruit", "olive tree").^{[half-dozen] [7]} The word oil originally meant "olive oil", from ŏlĕum ,^[8] ἔλαιον ( élaion , "olive oil").^{[nine] [x]} Also in multiple other languages the discussion for "oil" ultimately derives from the name of this tree and its fruit. The oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean 𐀁𐀨𐀷 , eastward-ra-wa , and 𐀁𐀨𐀺 , due east-ra-wo or 𐀁𐁉𐀺 , e-rai-wo , written in the Linear B syllabic script.^[11]

Description [edit]

19th-century illustrations

The olive tree, Olea europaea, is an evergreen tree or shrub native to Mediterranean Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is curt and squat and rarely exceeds 8–15 m (25–50 ft) in height. 'Pisciottana', a unique variety comprising xl,000 copse found only in the area around Pisciotta in the Campania region of southern Italy, ofttimes exceeds this, with correspondingly big torso diameters. The silvery green leaves are ellipsoidal, measuring 4–10 cm (ane+ 1⁄2 –4 in) long and i–3 cm ( 3⁄viii –1+ 3⁄xvi  in) broad. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted.^[12]

The small, white, feathery flowers, with 10-cleft calyx and corolla, 2 stamens, and bifid stigma, are borne generally on the previous year'southward wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves.

The fruit is a small drupe 1–2.five cm ( three⁄eight –1 in) long when ripe, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested in the green to purple stage.^[13] Canned black olives take often been artificially blackened^[14] (run across below on processing) and may incorporate the chemic ferrous gluconate to improve the appearance.^[xv] Olea europaea contains a pyrena commonly referred to in American English as a "pit", and in British English language as a "stone".^[16]

Taxonomy [edit]

The six natural subspecies of Olea europaea are distributed over a broad range:^{[17] [18] [19]}

• Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Mediterranean Bowl)

  Olea europaea var. sylvestris, considered the "wild" olive of the Mediterranean, is a multifariousness characterized past a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruit.

• O. e. subsp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to Southwest China)
• O. e. subsp. cerasiformis (Madeira); also known as Olea maderensis
• O. e. subsp. guanchica (Canary Islands)
• O. e. subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)
• O. e. subsp. maroccana (Kingdom of morocco)

The subspecies O. e. cerasiformis is tetraploid, and O. e. maroccana is hexaploid.^[20] Wild-growing forms of the olive are sometimes treated as the species Olea oleaster. The trees referred to as "white" and "black" olives in Southeast Asia are non really olives but species of Canarium.^[21]

Cultivars [edit]

Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known.^{[22] [23]} An olive'due south cultivar has a pregnant impact on its color, size, shape, and growth characteristics, likewise as the qualities of olive oil.^[22] Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to equally "table olives".^[4]

Since many olive cultivars are self-sterile or almost and so, they are generally planted in pairs with a unmarried primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary i. In contempo times, efforts take been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities useful to farmers, such equally resistance to disease, quick growth, and larger or more consistent crops.

History [edit]

Mediterranean Basin [edit]

Fossil evidence indicates the olive tree had its origins 20–40 million years ago in the Oligocene, in what is at present corresponding to Italy and the eastern Mediterranean Bowl.^{[24] [25]} Around 100, 000 years ago, olives were used by humans in Africa, on the Atlantic declension of Morocco, for fuel direction and most probably for consumption.^[26] Wild oleasters were present and collected in the Eastern Mediterranean since ~nineteen,000 BP.^[27] The genome of cultivated olives reflects their origin from oleaster populations in the Eastern Mediterranean.^{[28] [29] [xxx] [31] [32]} The olive constitute was beginning cultivated some 7,000 years ago in Mediterranean regions.^{[24] [33]}

The edible olive seems to have coexisted with humans for about five,000 to 6,000 years, going dorsum to the early Bronze Age (3150 to 1200 BC). Its origin tin can be traced to the Levant based on written tablets, olive pits, and wood fragments plant in ancient tombs.^{[34] [35]} As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may take been the source of the wealth of the Minoan civilization.^[36]

The beginnings of the cultivated olive is unknown. Fossil olea pollen has been plant in Macedonia and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original chemical element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of olea were found in the palaeosols of the volcanic Greek island of Santorini and dated to about 37,000 BP. Imprints of larvae of olive whitefly Aleurobus olivinus were institute on the leaves. The same insect is normally found today on olive leaves, showing that the constitute-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time.^[37] Other leaves found on the same island are dated dorsum to lx,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean.^[38]

Outside the Mediterranean [edit]

Olives are not native to the Americas. Castilian colonists brought the olive to the New Earth, where its tillage prospered in nowadays-day Peru, Chile, and Argentina. The showtime seedlings from Spain were planted in Lima by Antonio de Rivera in 1560. Olive tree cultivation rapidly spread forth the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast where the climate was similar to the Mediterranean.^[39] Castilian missionaries established the tree in the 18th century in California. It was first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 or later effectually 1795. Orchards were started at other missions, but in 1838, an inspection institute only ii olive orchards in California. Tillage for oil gradually became a highly successful commercial venture from the 1860s onward.^{[xl] [41]}

In Japan, the start successful planting of olive copse happened in 1908 on Shodo Island, which became the cradle of olive cultivation in Japan.^[42]

An estimated 865 million olive copse were in the world as of 2005, and the vast bulk of these were institute in Mediterranean countries, with traditionally marginal areas accounting for no more than 25% of olive-planted area and 10% of oil production.^[43]

Symbolic connotations [edit]

Olive oil has long been considered sacred and holy. The olive co-operative has frequently been a symbol of abundance, celebrity, and peace. The leafy branches of the olive tree were ritually offered to deities and powerful figures every bit emblems of benediction and purification, and they were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. Today, olive oil is nonetheless used in many religious ceremonies. Over the years, the olive has also been used to symbolize wisdom, fertility, power, and purity.

Judaism and Christianity [edit]

Olives were one of the main elements in ancient Israelite cuisine. Olive oil was used for non only food and cooking, but as well lighting, sacrificial offerings, ointment, and anointment for priestly or royal role.^[44] The olive tree is one of the first plants mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Erstwhile Testament), and one of the most pregnant. An olive branch (or leaf, depending on translation) was brought back to Noah by a dove to demonstrate that the flood was over (Book of Genesis 8:eleven).

The olive is listed in Deuteronomy viii:8 equally i of the seven species that are noteworthy products of the State of State of israel.^[45] According to the Halakha, the Jewish law mandatory for all Jews, the olive is one of the seven species that require the recitation of me'eyn shalosh subsequently they are consumed. Olive oil is besides the nearly recommended and best possible oil for the lighting of the Shabbat candles.^[46]

The Mount of Olives, due east of Jerusalem, is mentioned several times in the New Testament. The Apologue of the Olive Tree in St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the Israelites to a tame olive tree and the Gentiles to a wild olive branch. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important function in the Bible.^[47]

Ancient Hellenic republic [edit]

Olives are idea to have been domesticated in the third millennium BC at the latest, at which point they, forth with grain and grapes, became role of Colin Renfrew's triad of Greek staple crops that fueled the emergence of more complex societies.^[48] Olives, and specially (perfumed) olive oil, became a major export product during the Minoan and Mycenaean periods. Dutch archaeologist Jorrit Kelder proposed that the Mycenaeans sent shipments of olive oil, probably alongside live olive branches, to the courtroom of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten as a diplomatic gift.^[49] In Arab republic of egypt, these imported olive branches may have acquired ritual meanings, as they are depicted equally offerings on the wall of the Aten temple and were used in wreaths for the burial of Tutankhamun. It is likely that, as well as beingness used for culinary purposes, olive oil was besides used to various other ends, including as a perfume.

The ancient Greeks smeared olive oil on their bodies and hair as a thing of grooming and good health. Olive oil was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. Information technology was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples and was the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. In Homer'southward Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a unmarried stock,^[fifty] and in the Iliad, (XVII.53ff) there is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, past a bound; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Hellenic republic invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, forth with cheese-making and bee-keeping.^[51] Olive was one of the woods used to way the most archaic Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries.^[52]

It was purely a affair of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew get-go in Athens.^[53] In an primitive Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronage of Attica from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. According to the fourth-century BC male parent of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age around 200 years,^[54] he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was yet to exist seen at that place in the 2d century AD;^[55] and when Pausanias was shown it c. 170 Advertising, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, only on the very day it was burnt it grew once more to the height of two cubits."^[56] Indeed, olive suckers sprout readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Statuary Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage.

Theophrastus, in On the Causes of Plants, does non give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.sixteen.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rising to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and broad by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a divide proper noun, kotinos.^[57] In his Enquiry into Plants (two.1.2–4) he states that the olive can be propagated from a piece of the trunk, the root, a twig, or a pale.^[58]

Ancient Rome [edit]

According to Pliny the Elderberry, a vine, a fig tree, and an olive tree grew in the heart of the Roman Forum; the olive was planted to provide shade (the garden plot was recreated in the 20th century).^[59] The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very uncomplicated: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."^[threescore] Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods.^[61]

Vitruvius describes of the apply of charred olive forest in tying together walls and foundations in his De Architectura:

The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, exist such that armed men meeting on superlative of it may laissez passer i another without interference. In the thickness there should exist set a very shut succession of ties fabricated of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to requite it lasting endurance. For that is a fabric which neither disuse, nor the weather condition, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the world or set in the water information technology keeps sound and useful forever. And then not only metropolis walls but substructures in full general and all walls that require a thickness similar that of a city wall, will be long in falling to decay if tied in this manner.^[62]

Islam [edit]

The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned seven times in the Quran,^[63] and the olive is praised as a precious fruit. Olive tree and olive oil health benefits have been propounded in prophetic medicine. Muhammad is reported to have said: "Take oil of olive and massage with information technology – it is a blessed tree" (Sunan al-Darimi, 69:103). Olives are substitutes for dates (if not available) during Ramadan fasting, and olive tree leaves are used as incense in some Muslim Mediterranean countries.^[64]

United States [edit]

The Not bad Seal of the United States depicts an eagle clutching an olive branch in one of its talons, indicating the power of peace.^[65]

Oldest known copse [edit]

• An olive tree in Mouriscas, Abrantes, Portugal, (Oliveira exercise Mouchão) is i of the oldest known olive trees still alive to this day, with an estimated historic period of three,350 years,^{[66] [67]} planted approximately at the beginning of the Atlantic Bronze Age.
• An olive tree on the island of Brijuni in Croatia has a radiocarbon dating age of about 1,600 years. It still gives fruit (about 30 kg or 66 lb per year), which is made into olive oil.^[68]
• An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", is thought to be a remnant of the grove where Plato's Academy was situated, making it an estimated 2,400 years one-time.^[69] The tree comprised a clangorous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975, when a traffic blow caused a bus to uproot information technology.^[69] Post-obit that, the body was preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. In 2013, information technology was reported that the remaining part of the trunk was uprooted and stolen, allegedly to serve as firewood.
• The age of an olive tree in Crete, the Finix Olive, is claimed to be over 2,000 years onetime; this gauge is based on archaeological testify effectually the tree.^[70]
• The olive tree of Vouves in Crete has an age estimated between 2,000 and 4,000 years.^[71]
• An olive tree called Farga d'Arió in Ulldecona, Catalonia, Spain, has been estimated (with light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation-perimetry methods) to engagement dorsum to 314 AD, which would mean that it was planted when Constantine the Great was Roman emperor.^[72]
• Some Italian olive trees are believed to appointment back to Ancient Rome (8th century BC to 5th century AD), although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult. Several other trees of about i,000 years old are within the aforementioned garden. The 15th-century trees of Olivo della Linza, at Alliste in the Province of Lecce in Apulia on the Italian mainland, were noted past Bishop Ludovico de Pennis during his pastoral visit to the Diocese of Nardò-Gallipoli in 1452.^[73]
• The village of Bcheale, Lebanese republic, claims to take the oldest olive copse in the globe (4000 BC for the oldest), but no scientific study supports these claims. Other copse in the towns of Amioun announced to be at least ane,500 years onetime.^{[74] [75]}
• Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words gat shemanim or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the time of Jesus.^[76] A report conducted past the National Research Council of Italy in 2012 used carbon dating on older parts of the trunks of iii trees from Gethsemane and came up with the dates of 1092, 1166, and 1198 AD, while DNA tests show that the trees were originally planted from the same parent establish.^[77] According to molecular analysis, the tested trees showed the same allelic contour at all microsatellite loci analyzed which furthermore may indicate attempt to keep the lineage of an older species intact.^[78] However, Bernabei writes, "All the tree trunks are hollow inside then that the key, older wood is missing . . . In the end, simply three from a total of viii olive trees could exist successfully dated. The dated ancient olive copse do not, nevertheless, allow any hypothesis to be made with regard to the age of the remaining five giant olive copse."^[79] Babcox concludes, "The roots of the eight oldest trees are possibly much older. Visiting guides to the garden often state that they are two thousand years old."^[fourscore]
• The 2,000-twelvemonth-former^[81] Bidni olive copse on Malta, which accept been confirmed through carbon dating,^[82] have been protected since 1933^[83] and are listed in UNESCO's Database of National Cultural Heritage Laws.^[84] In 2011, after recognising their historical and landscape value, and in recognition of the fact that "just twenty trees remain from xl at the beginning of the 20th century",^[85] Maltese authorities declared the ancient Bidni olive grove at Bidnija as a Tree Protected Area.^[86]

• Examples of olive trees

• 

• 

• 

Uses [edit]

The olive tree, Olea europaea, has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, ornamental reasons, and the olive fruit. Near 90% of all harvested olives are turned into oil, while about 10% are used every bit tabular array olives.^[22] The olive is one of the "trinity" or "triad" of basic ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine, the other two being wheat for bread, pasta, and couscous, and the grape for wine.^{[87] [88]}

Olive oil [edit]

Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, produced past pressing whole olives and extracting the oil. It is ordinarily used in cooking, for frying foods or equally a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps, and has boosted uses in some religions. Espana accounts for almost half of global olive oil product; other major producers are Portugal, Italy, Tunisia, Hellenic republic and Turkey. Per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed past Italy and Spain.

The composition of olive oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest and extraction process. It consists mainly of oleic acid (upwards to 83%), with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid (up to 21%) and palmitic acid (up to 20%). Actress virgin olive oil is required to take no more than 0.8% free acidity and is considered to have favorable flavor characteristics.

Table olives [edit]

Tabular array olives are classified by the International Olive Council (IOC) into three groups according to the degree of ripeness achieved before harvesting:^[89]

1. Green olives are picked when they accept obtained total size, while unripe; they are ordinarily shades of green to xanthous and contain the bitter phytochemical oleuropein.^[89]
2. Semi-ripe or turning-color olives are picked at the starting time of the ripening cycle, when the colour has begun to change from green to multicolour shades of scarlet to brown. Only the peel is coloured, every bit the mankind of the fruit lacks pigmentation at this stage, dissimilar that of ripe olives.
3. Black olives or ripe olives are picked at total maturity when fully ripe, displaying colours of imperial, chocolate-brown or black.^[89] To leach the oleuropein from olives, commercial producers utilise lye, which neutralizes the bitterness of oleuropein, producing a balmy flavor and soft texture characteristic of California black olives sold in cans.^[89] Such olives are typically preserved in brine and sterilized under loftier rut during the canning process.^[90]

Fermentation and curing [edit]

Raw or fresh olives are naturally very bitter; to make them palatable, olives must be cured and fermented, thereby removing oleuropein, a biting phenolic compound that can reach levels of 14% of dry matter in immature olives.^[91] In addition to oleuropein, other phenolic compounds render freshly picked olives unpalatable and must also exist removed or lowered in quantity through curing and fermentation. Generally speaking, phenolics reach their elevation in immature fruit and are converted every bit the fruit matures.^[92] Once ripening occurs, the levels of phenolics sharply reject through their conversion to other organic products which render some cultivars edible immediately.^[91] 1 example of an edible olive native to the island of Thasos is the throubes black olive, which becomes edible when immune to ripen in the sun, shrivel, and autumn from the tree.^{[93] [94]}

The curing process may take from a few days with lye, to a few months with brine or common salt packing.^[95] With the exception of California mode and salt-cured olives, all methods of curing involve a major fermentation involving bacteria and yeast that is of equal importance to the final table olive product.^[96] Traditional cures, using the natural microflora on the fruit to induce fermentation, lead to two important outcomes: the leaching out and breakup of oleuropein and other unpalatable phenolic compounds, and the generation of favourable metabolites from bacteria and yeast, such as organic acids, probiotics, glycerol, and esters, which impact the sensory properties of the last tabular array olives.^[91] Mixed bacterial/yeast olive fermentations may have probiotic qualities.^{[97] [98]} Lactic acid is the most important metabolite, as it lowers the pH, acting as a natural preservative against the growth of unwanted pathogenic species. The upshot is table olives which can be stored without refrigeration. Fermentations dominated by lactic acrid bacteria are, therefore, the most suitable method of curing olives. Yeast-dominated fermentations produce a different suite of metabolites which provide poorer preservation, and then they are corrected with an acid such every bit citric acid in the final processing stage to provide microbial stability.^[4]

The many types of preparations for table olives depend on local tastes and traditions. The most of import commercial examples are listed below.

Lebanese or Phoenician fermentation

Practical to green, semiripe, or ripe olives. Olives are soaked in table salt water for 24-48 hours. And then they are slightly crushed with a rock to hasten the fermentation process. The olives are stored for a period of upwards to a year in a container with common salt h2o, lemon juice, lemon peels, laurel and olive leaves, and rosemary. Some recipes may contain white vinegar or olive oil.

Castilian or Sevillian fermentation

Virtually commonly applied to green olive preparation, around 60% of all the world's table olives are produced with this method.^[99] Olives are soaked in lye (dilute NaOH, two–4%) for eight–10 hours to hydrolyse the oleuropein. They are usually considered "treated" when the lye has penetrated two-thirds of the way into the fruit. They are so done in one case or several times in water to remove the caustic solution and transferred to fermenting vessels total of alkali at typical concentrations of 8–12% NaCl.^[100] The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds.

Fermentation is carried out past the natural microbiota present on the olives that survive the lye treatment process. Many organisms are involved, usually reflecting the local conditions or terroir of the olives. During a typical fermentation gram-negative enterobacteria flourish in small numbers at commencement only are rapidly outgrown past lactic acid leaner species such equally Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis and Pediococcus damnosus. These leaner produce lactic acid to assistance lower the pH of the alkali and therefore stabilize the product against unwanted pathogenic species. A diversity of yeasts then accumulate in sufficient numbers to assist consummate the fermentation alongside the lactic acid bacteria. Yeasts commonly mentioned include the teleomorphs Pichia anomala, Pichia membranifaciens, Debaryomyces hansenii and Kluyveromyces marxianus.^[4]

Once fermented, the olives are placed in fresh alkali and acid corrected, to be ready for market.

Sicilian or Greek fermentation

Applied to dark-green, semiripe and ripe olives, they are almost identical to the Spanish type fermentation process, but the lye treatment process is skipped and the olives are placed straight in fermentation vessels full of alkali (viii–12% NaCl). The brine is changed on a regular basis to assist remove the phenolic compounds. As the caustic treatment is avoided, lactic acid leaner are just nowadays in similar numbers to yeast and appear to be outdone by the abundant yeasts found on untreated olives. As very little acrid is produced by the yeast fermentation, lactic, acetic, or citric acid is ofttimes added to the fermentation stage to stabilize the process.^[96]

Picholine or directly-brined fermentation

Practical to green, semi-ripe, or ripe olives, they are soaked in lye typically for longer periods than Spanish style (east.g. x–72 hours) until the solution has penetrated three-quarters of the fashion into the fruit. They are then washed and immediately brined and acid corrected with citric acid to achieve microbial stability. Fermentation however occurs carried out past acidogenic yeast and bacteria but is more subdued than other methods. The brine is changed on a regular ground to help remove the phenolic compounds, and a series of progressively stronger concentrations of salt are added until the product is fully stabilized and fix to be eaten.^[4]

H2o-cured fermentation

Applied to green, semi-ripe, or ripe olives, these are soaked in water or weak brine and this solution is changed on a daily basis for ten–fourteen days. The oleuropein is naturally dissolved and leached into the water and removed during a continual soak-wash cycle. Fermentation takes place during the water treatment stage and involves a mixed yeast/bacteria ecosystem. Sometimes, the olives are lightly croaky with a edgeless instrument to trigger fermentation and speed up the fermentation process. Once debittered, the olives are brined to concentrations of 8–12% NaCl and acid corrected and are then ready to eat.^[96]

Table salt-cured fermentation

Practical only to ripe olives, since it is only a light fermentation. They are usually produced in Morocco, Turkey, and other eastern Mediterranean countries. Once picked, the olives are vigorously washed and packed in alternating layers with table salt. The high concentration of salt draws the moisture out of olives, dehydrating and shriveling them until they expect somewhat analogous to a raisin. Once packed in salt, fermentation is minimal and just initiated by the nigh halophilic yeast species such as Debaryomyces hansenii. In one case cured, they are sold in their natural state without any additives.^[4] Then-called oil-cured olives are cured in salt, and and then soaked in oil.^[101]

California or bogus ripening

Applied to greenish and semi-ripe olives, they are placed in lye and soaked. Upon their removal, they are washed in h2o injected with compressed air, without fermentation. This process is repeated several times until both oxygen and lye have soaked through to the pit. The repeated, saturated exposure to air oxidises the pare and mankind of the fruit, turning it black in an bogus procedure that mimics natural ripening. Once fully oxidised or "blackened", they are brined and acrid corrected and are so ready for eating.^{[89] [90]}

Olive wood [edit]

Olive woods is very hard and is prized for its immovability, colour, high combustion temperature, and interesting grain patterns. Because of the commercial importance of the fruit, ho-hum growth, and relatively small size of the tree, olive woods and its products are relatively expensive. Common uses of the wood include: kitchen utensils, carved wooden bowls, cutting boards, fine piece of furniture, and decorative items. The yellow or light light-green-chocolate-brown woods is ofttimes finely veined with a darker tint; existence very hard and shut-grained, information technology is valued past woodworkers.^[102]

Ornamental uses [edit]

In modern landscape design olive trees are oftentimes used equally ornamental features for their distinctively gnarled trunks and "evergreen" silver gray leaf.^[103]

Cultivation [edit]

Areas of cultivation in greenish^[104]

The earliest show for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic period archaeological site of Teleilat el Ghassul in modernistic Jordan. Farmers in ancient times believed that olive trees would non abound well if planted more than than a certain altitude from the ocean; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.vi km or 34.5 mi) every bit the limit. Modernistic feel does not always ostend this, and, though showing a preference for the declension, they have long been grown farther inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia and northwest Africa) where winters are mild. An article on olive tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam'south 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.^[105]

Olives are cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Republic of peru, Pakistan, Commonwealth of australia, Oregon, and California, and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand.^[106] They are also grown in the Córdoba Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters.^[107]

Growth and propagation [edit]

Pruned copse in Ostuni, Apulia, Italy

Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and littoral climate weather condition. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, simply in rich soils, they are predisposed to illness and produce poor quality oil. (This was noted past Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather and sunny positions without any shade, while temperatures beneath −10 °C (fourteen °F) may injure fifty-fifty a mature tree. They tolerate drought well because of their sturdy and all-encompassing root systems. Olive trees can remain productive for centuries as long equally they are pruned correctly and regularly.

Only a handful of olive varieties can be used to cross-pollinate. 'Pendolino' olive trees are partially self-fertile, simply pollenizers are needed for a big fruit ingather. Other uniform olive tree pollinators include 'Leccino' and 'Maurino'. 'Pendolino' olive trees are used extensively as pollinizers in large olive tree groves.

Olives are propagated past diverse methods. The preferred means are cuttings and layers; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws upward suckers from the stump when cut down. Yet, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; they must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to exercise well.^[108] Branches of diverse thickness cutting into lengths effectually ane m (3+ i⁄2  ft) planted deeply in manured basis before long vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they soon form a vigorous shoot.

The olive is besides sometimes grown from seed. To facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is beginning softened by slight rotting, or soaked in hot h2o or in an alkali metal solution.

In situations where farthermost cold has damaged or killed the olive tree, the rootstock can survive and produce new shoots which in turn go new copse. In this way, olive copse can regenerate themselves. In Tuscany in 1985, a very severe frost destroyed many productive and aged olive trees and ruined many farmers' livelihoods. Even so, new shoots appeared in the spring and, one time the expressionless wood was removed, became the basis for new fruit-producing trees.

Olives abound very slowly, and over many years, the trunk tin reach a considerable bore. A. P. de Candolle recorded ane exceeding 10 m (33 ft) in girth. The trees rarely exceed fifteen 1000 (50 ft) in acme and are more often than not confined to much more than limited dimensions by frequent pruning. Olives are very hardy and are resistant to disease and burn down. Its root system is robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the above-ground structure is destroyed.

The ingather from old copse is sometimes enormous, but they seldom conduct well two years in succession, and in many cases, a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh season. Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Liguria, Languedoc, and Provence, the copse are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding twelvemonth, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized.

Pests, diseases, and weather condition [edit]

Various pathologies tin touch on olives. The nigh serious pest is the olive fruit fly (Dacus oleae or Bactrocera oleae) which lays its eggs in the olive most commonly just before it becomes ripe in the fall. The region surrounding the puncture rots, becomes brownish, and takes a bitter sense of taste, making the olive unfit for eating or for oil. For controlling the pest, the do has been to spray with insecticides (organophosphates, eastward.g. dimethoate). Classic organic methods have been practical such as trapping, applying the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, and spraying with kaolin. Such methods are obligatory for organic olives.

A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae,^[109] induces neoplasm growth in the shoots. Sure lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers. Xylella fastidiosa bacteria, which can also infect citrus fruit and vines, has attacked olive copse in Apulia, southern Italy, causing olive quick pass up syndrome (OQDS).^{[110] [111] [112]} The master vector is Philaenus spumarius (meadow spittlebug).^[113]

A pest which spreads through olive copse is the black scale bug, a small blackness calibration insect that resembles a small blackness spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive copse and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth harm.^[114]

Rabbits eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young copse. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree, it is likely to dice. Voles and mice also do damage by eating the roots of olives. At the northern border of their cultivation zone, for example in northern Italy, or southern France and Switzerland, olive copse suffer occasionally from frost.^[115] Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering flavor also cause harm.

Every bit an invasive species [edit]

Since its first domestication, O. europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe accept been largely swamped by feral plants.^[116]

In some other parts of the world where information technology has been introduced, most notably South Australia, the olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia, its seeds are spread past the introduced blood-red play a joke on and past many bird species, including the European starling and the native emu, into woodlands, where they germinate and eventually course a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.^[117] As the climate of South Australia is very dry out and bushfire prone, the oil-rich feral olive tree substantially increases the fire hazard of native sclerophyll woodlands.^[118]

Harvesting [edit]

Olives are harvested in the autumn and wintertime. More specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the end of September to most the centre of Nov. Blond olives are picked from the heart of October to the finish of November, and black olives are collected from the centre of November to the end of January or early Feb. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several weeks in wintertime, but the fourth dimension varies in each country, and with the flavor and the cultivar.

Nigh olives today are harvested past shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found lying on the ground can issue in poor quality oil, due to damage. Some other method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. This method produces high quality oil.^[119] A third method uses a device called an oli-net that wraps around the tree torso and opens to form an umbrella-like catcher from which workers collect the fruit. Some other method uses an electrical tool, the beater (abbacchiatore in Italian), that has large tongs that spin around speedily, removing fruit from the tree. Olives harvested by this method are used for oil.

Tabular array olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must accept intendance not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's cervix are used. In some places in Italia, Republic of croatia, and Greece, olives are harvested by paw because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. Every bit a result, the fruit is non hobbling, which leads to a superior finished production. The method as well involves sawing off branches, which is healthy for future production.^[92]

The amount of oil independent in the fruit differs greatly past cultivar; the pericarp is normally sixty–70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5–2.ii kg (3 lb 5 oz – 4 lb 14 oz) of oil per tree per twelvemonth.^[70]

Global production [edit]

Olives are one of the most extensively cultivated fruit crops in the world.^[120] In 2011, about ix.half-dozen million hectares (24 million acres) were planted with olive trees, which is more than than twice the corporeality of land devoted to apples, bananas, or mangoes. But kokosnoot copse and oil palms command more space.^[121] Cultivation area tripled from 2.6 to seven.95 one thousand thousand hectares (half dozen.4 to 19.6 million acres) between 1960 and 1998 and reached a peak of 10 million hectares (25 one thousand thousand acres) in 2008. The 10 most-producing countries, according to the Nutrient and Agriculture Organization, are all located in the Mediterranean region and produce 95% of the world's olives.

o = 100,000 metric tons (98,000 long tons; 110,000 short tons) produced/yr

Primary countries of production (Year 2016 per FAOSTAT)^[122]

Country/Region	Production (tonnes)	Cultivated area (hectares)	Yield (tonnes/ha)
World	xix,267,000	ten,650,000	i.8091
European Matrimony	11,686,528	five,028,637	2.3240
Kingdom of spain	6,560,000	2,573,000	2.5490
Hellenic republic	2,343,000	887,000	2.6414
Italy	2,092,000	one,165,000	1.7950
Turkey	1,730,000	846,000	2.0460
Kingdom of morocco	1,416,000	i,008,000	ane.4044
Syrian arab republic	899,000	765,000	1.1748
Tunisia	700,000	1,646,000	0.4253
Algeria	697,000	424,000	1.6437
Egypt	694,000	67,000	6.7293
Portugal	617,000	355,000	1.7394

Diet [edit]

Olives, dark-green

Marinated green olives
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	609 kJ (146 kcal)
Carbohydrates	3.84 g
Sugars	0.54 g
Dietary fiber	iii.3 g
Fat	15.32 chiliad
Saturated	two.029 g
Monounsaturated	eleven.314 g
Polyunsaturated	1.307 g
Poly peptide	ane.03 g
Vitamins	Quantity %DV †
Vitamin A equiv. beta-Carotene lutein zeaxanthin	iii% 20 μg 2% 231 μg 510 μg
Thiamine (Bane)	2% 0.021 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	1% 0.007 mg
Niacin (B3)	2% 0.237 mg
Vitamin Bhalf-dozen	2% 0.031 mg
Folate (B9)	1% 3 μg
Choline	3% 14.2 mg
Vitamin E	25% 3.81 mg
Vitamin K	ane% ane.4 μg
Minerals	Quantity %DV †
Calcium	5% 52 mg
Atomic number 26	four% 0.49 mg
Magnesium	3% xi mg
Phosphorus	ane% 4 mg
Potassium	one% 42 mg
Sodium	104% 1556 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	75.iii g
Full Link to USDA Database entry
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA FoodData Central

One hundred grams of cured green olives provide 146 calories, are a rich source of vitamin E (25% of the Daily Value, DV), and comprise a large amount of sodium (104% DV); other nutrients are insignificant. Green olives are 75% water, xv% fat, 4% carbohydrates and 1% protein (table).

Phytochemicals [edit]

The polyphenol composition of olive fruits varies during fruit ripening and during processing by fermentation when olives are immersed whole in brine or crushed to produce oil.^[123] In raw fruit, full polyphenol contents, every bit measured by the Folin method, are 117 mg/100 one thousand in blackness olives and 161 mg/100 g in green olives, compared to 55 and 21 mg/100 g for extra virgin and virgin olive oil, respectively.^[123] Olive fruit contains several types of polyphenols, mainly tyrosols, phenolic acids, flavonols and flavones, and for blackness olives, anthocyanins. The principal bitter flavor of olives before curing results from oleuropein and its aglycone which total in content, respectively, 72 and 82 mg/100 one thousand in blackness olives, and 56 and 59 mg/100 g in dark-green olives.^[123]

During the crushing, kneading and extraction of olive fruit to obtain olive oil, oleuropein, demethyloleuropein and ligstroside are hydrolyzed by endogenous beta-glucosidases^{[ citation needed ]} to course aldehydes, dialdehydes, and aldehydic aglycones.^[124] Polyphenol content as well varies with olive cultivar and the manner of presentation, with apparently olives having higher contents than those that are pitted or stuffed.^{[124] [125]}

Allergenic potential [edit]

Olive tree pollen is extremely allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of x.^[126] Olea europaea is primarily current of air-pollinated^[127] and its light, buoyant pollen is a strong trigger for asthma.^[126] I popular variety, "Swan Hill", is widely sold every bit an "allergy-complimentary" olive tree; all the same, this variety does blossom and produce allergenic pollen.^[126]

Gallery [edit]

• 

• 

• 

  Olivo della Linza, 15th century

• 

  A seed-grown sprout

• 

• 

• 

Meet also [edit]

• Moria (tree)
• List of olive cultivars
• Olive pare

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External links [edit]

Await up olive in Wiktionary, the free lexicon.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Olive .

• Agricultural Research Service, United states Department of Agronomics; Germplasm Resources Information Network (Grin): Olea europaea
• Most Mutual Spanish Olea Trees, Ginart Oleas

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive

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